Gross Specimens General Pathology (50 specimens)

A competent doctor should good at appreciating the nature of deformity or abnormality in gross structures as well as in microscopy. Here are some formaline  preserved specimen in glass jars. These pics are captured at AIMC pathology lab, Lahore Pakistan...








Medical Mnemonics

Medical Mnemonics..... Medical students often find it difficult to memorize some confusing terms in the course of there studies. Here is an effort to assist and make the students able to cope with such difficulties. You may find it useful...... 
Anatomy mnemonics for Medical students


Anatomy mnemonics on medical education for students
Anatomy mnemonics on medical education

Anatomy mnemonics

Pathology Slides

How to identify pathology slides in the laboratory.

P.vivax (trophozoite).jpg

P.vivax.jpg

RBCs in urine.jpg

GLAUCOMA

Glaucoma is the clinical condition in which there is adequate increase in intra-ocular pressure. It is one of the leading causes of blindness all over the world.

Anatomy of the eye:

To understand the etiology of glaucoma, one should be well familiar with the anatomy of the eye ball. As shown in fig.1, the eye ball comprises of three coverings: a) Sclera, b) Choroid, c) Retina. Cornea is the anterior most past of sclera.
fig.1 structure of the eye ball
Iris is the curtain in front of the lens, ligaments of zonule, with aperture (pupil) in the center. It allow only adequate rays of light from the object to form the image on the retina. Its radial and circular muscles determine the intensity of light that is required for adequate illumination on the retina. Behind the lens, there is Vitreous Humor which is transparent lequid medium(shown by oblique blue lines in the fig.1). Another important structure is the cilliary body, located at corneo-scleral junction, which produce a very important fluid secretion, i.e, Aqous Humor. This is the brief review of some of the aspects of eye structure that are related to understand the Glaucoma.

Causes of glaucoma:

Now let us proceed to the etiology and important treatment regimens of Glaucoma. As mentioned above the glaucoma is associated with raised intra-ocular pressure. This pressure being applied may be by the fluid secretion of the cilliary body, the aqous humor in the anterior chamber of the eye ball. Physiologically, Aqous humor is constantly produced by the cilliary body. It flows behind the iris and then come out through the pupil on the front of iris, just behind the cornea.

This fluid has to be drained into the canal of Shelmn. The normal intra-ocular pressure, i.e, 12-20mmHg, is maintained by the balance between the production of the fluid and its drainage.

causes:


  1. When there is excess production or 
  2. there may be any obstruction in the drainage of aqous humor, this will lead to the raised I.C pressure that eventually lead to the blindness, if it exists chronically and not treated.

Two types of Glaucoma:

  1. Open angle
  2. Closed angle

1. Open angle glaucoma:

It is the chronic condition in which glaucoma persist over the period of time and needs proper treatment to avoid the fatal consequences. This class of glaucoma has got very much interest in modern pharmacology, because of its responsiveness to the appropriate drug therapy with different classes of pharmacological agents.

How to Treat the glaucoma patient:

Basic theme behind the use of pharmacologic agents is "to reduce the aqous humor production or to facilitate the out-flow of aqous humor."
Five groups of drugs are choice of treatment depending upon the condition of the patient.
  • Cholinomimetics
  • alpha-blockers
  • beta-blockers
  • prostaglandins F2a
  • Diuretics.

ANTEROLATERAL SYSTEM


ASCENDING TRACTS
(Sensory physiology)
Before going in to the details of ANTEROLATERAL group of ascending tracts, we should have a clear concept of ASCENDING TRACTS.... ..........
What the ASCENDING TRACTS are?
The answer to this question is that the spinal cord is basically a downward elongated part of central nervous system. Among many different functions which the spinal cord performs, in order to co-ordinate the different body functions, ONE VERY IMPORTANT FUNCTION is that “it acts as a conduit” for the transfer of information between the higher centers of the CNS, i.e. brain, and different internal and external receptor systems, i.e. PNS.
Other functions include,
  • It acts as a relay center for many types of sensory information.
  • It acts as a reflex center for eliciting the local reflexes.
  • It integrates and performs its role in motor control for some repetitive motions, such as walking. Higher signals only make a correction, when necessary.
  • Some other autonomic functions. Mainly sympathetic, and also parasympathetic to some extent.

Histology Slides 2nd year

                                                 More than 100 Slides for Histology lab. click
Colon and rectum...jpg

Breasts..lactating phase 23.jpg

Histology Slides

More than 60 identification slides. click here.
Identification of tissue slides in the histology labs.